Storage of H2 by absorption and/or mixture within a fluid medium

ABSTRACT

For the first time, a hydrogen storage method, apparatus and system having a fluid mixture is provided. At predetermined pressures and/or temperatures within a contained substantially fixed volume, the fluid mixture can store a high density of hydrogen molecules, wherein a predetermined phase of the fluid mixture is capable of being withdrawn from the substantially fixed volume for use as a vehicle fuel or energy storage having reduced and/or eliminated evaporative losses, especially where storage weight, vessel cost, vessel shape, safety, and energy efficiency are beneficial.

RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/479,125, filed Jun. 16, 2003, and entitled, “Storageof Hydrogen By Absorption In Fluids,” which is incorporated herein bythis reference.

[0002] The United States Government has rights in this inventionpursuant to Contract No. W-7405-ENG-48 between the United StatesDepartment of Energy and the University of California for the operationof Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] 1. Field of the Invention

[0004] The present invention relates to a method of storing moleculeswhose standard state under ambient conditions is as a gas. Morespecifically, the present invention relates to a method and system ofstoring hydrogen and its isotopes by absorption and/or mixture within afluid medium, such as a fluid mixture for use as a fuel, energy storage,or chemical applications.

[0005] 2. State of Technology

[0006] There is considerable interest in replacing fossil fuels withhydrogen because of hydrogen's high energy density per unit weight, itsready availability through the electrolysis of water, and the absence ofpolluting byproducts from its use. A number of technological componentspresent challenges in making this transition to a hydrogen economy, andin the development of appropriate systems and infrastructure that canintegrate into those that already exist.

[0007] In the hydrogen economy, hydrogen is targeted to be stored indifferent places, in different unit volumes, and in operationallyvarying configurations, as it moves down the supply chain from producersto consumers. Producers may need to store large inventory volumes.Hydrogen may be stored in transporting vessels as it travels fromproducers to distributors. Fuel distributors, including stations thatdeliver fuel for vehicles, other power-driven devices, and electronicdevices, often may need large quantities on hand. Small point-of-usestorage containers are destined to be required in power plants,vehicles, and personal electronics. All these hydrogen storageapplications have in common the need to safely maximize the amount ofhydrogen stored per unit of storage system volume, and differfundamentally from the gasoline distribution system in which the fuelretains the same and incompressible form throughout the supply chain.

[0008] The standard methods of hydrogen storage are in the form of a gascompressed under high pressure or a liquid maintained at cryogenictemperatures. Safety, both real and perceived, is an often-raisedcriticism of high pressure hydrogen storage as a compressed gas, whereinsuch a method of hydrogen storage has historically been limited by theintrinsic compressibility of hydrogen gas and the strength of pressurevessel materials resulting in bulky, heavy and/or relatively costlyhydrogen storage vessels.

[0009] Storage of hydrogen in the form of liquid hydrogen (LH₂) hastherefore been a favored method of bulk storage and transportation ofhydrogen under low pressure in lightweight and compact containers.However, hydrogen has the second lowest boiling point of any substance(20 K), making hydrogen liquefaction exceptionally complicated andenergy intensive, requiring electricity equivalent to 30-40% of the fuelenergy value of hydrogen. This low boiling point has also madeevaporation of H₂ from small LH₂ tanks a difficult problem. Even after20 years of development, the best vacuum-insulated automotive LH₂ tanksbegin to vent hydrogen vapor after only a few days to relieve pressurebuildup as heat flow into the tank from the environment warms the liquidhydrogen.

[0010] Storage of hydrogen in solid form by (reversible) chemicalreaction with metals to create metallic hydrides has also been employed.Hydride materials typically have high theoretical hydrogen storagedensities, but achieve only about 50% volumetric efficiency as hydridepowders expand upon reaction with and absorption of hydrogen gas and canrequire heat exchange equipment. Hydrides also permit relativelylow-pressure hydrogen storage, but rapid refueling requires increasedpressures to overcome the heat resulting from the absorption of hydrogengas and the exothermic reaction with the metal to form the metalhydride. Typical metallic hydrides are either relatively heavy (e.g.iron-titanium and lanthanum-nickel based hydrides) or have highdecomposition energies requiring very high temperatures (e.g. magnesiumhydride) to release hydrogen.

[0011] Hydrogen can also be stored by reversible chemical reaction withliquids. Aromatic molecules with carbon-carbon double bonds are theleading candidates for chemical storage of hydrogen in liquid form. Amethylcyclohexane molecule (C₇H₁₄) for example, releases 3 H₂ moleculesand becomes toluene (C₇H₈) when heated to temperatures as high as 650 K.Such a reaction has a theoretical reversible hydrogen storage densityabout 50 kg H₂/m³ and capacity of 6 wt % H₂.

[0012] An alternative to chemical hydrogen storage (e.g., as solid metalhydrides or liquids) is adsorption of H₂ molecules onto lightweight highsurface area solid adsorbents, such as carbon. Initial, typicallycryogenic, H₂ adsorption research on high surface area carbons began inthe 1960's and continued through the 1990's. The benefits of thisapproach decline with increasing pressure; however, as the volume of theadsorbent itself occupies volume available to hydrogen gas of everhigher densities. At pressures above about 200 atmospheres, removing theadsorbent usually increases hydrogen storage density at cryogenictemperatures. Finally, the physisorption of H₂ molecules onto anadsorbent surface is typically exothermic, complicating rapid refueling,especially under cryogenic conditions.

[0013] With the discovery of C₆₀ and related structures, carbonmaterials engineered on the atomic scale have been studied and proposedas H₂ adsorbents. For example, graphite nanofibers are a class ofengineered carbon materials that have received significant attentionwith experimental claims of extraordinary H₂ storage densities. Inaddition, carbon nanotubes have indicated some potential to adsorb H₂near room temperature but the current understanding of H₂ adsorptionwithin such carbon nanotubes (or other engineered adsorbents) is stillembryonic. The energetic and economic manufacturing costs of suchadvanced solid adsorbent materials are also currently unknown.

[0014] Accordingly, a need exists for a lightweight medium with reducedand/or eliminated evaporative hydrogen losses in a form that permitsstorage systems to operate at predetermined pressures lower than thosepresently adapted for high-pressure hydrogen gas storage andtemperatures less extreme than those presently adapted for liquidhydrogen (LH₂) storage. The present invention is directed to such aneed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0015] Accordingly, the present invention entails a method of storinghydrogen that includes: providing a container comprising a predeterminedsubstantially fixed volume; providing a fluid mixture to thepredetermined substantially fixed volume, wherein the fluid mixtureincludes hydrogen molecules; and providing a predetermined temperatureand/or a predetermined pressure to said container so as to increase thedensity of the fluid mixture, wherein a predetermined phase of the fluidmixture is capable of being withdrawn from the container and utilized asa fuel.

[0016] Another aspect of the present invention is to provide a hydrogenstorage apparatus that can contain a fluid mixture that includeshydrogen molecules in a predetermined substantially fixed volume. Thedensity of the fluid mixture can be increased and a predetermined phaseof the fluid mixture can be withdrawn and utilized as a fuel.

[0017] A final aspect of the present invention is to provide a hydrogenstorage system that includes one or more primary containers withpredetermined substantially fixed volumes that can contain fluidmixtures having hydrogen molecules. The density of such fluid mixturescan be increased and a predetermined phase of the fluid mixtures can bereceived by one or more secondary containers for fuel purposes.

[0018] Accordingly, the present invention provides a hydrogen storagemethod, apparatus, and system for use in vehicles, homes, fuelingstations, hydrogen production facilities, etc., to achieve energysecurity while addressing issues, such as, urban air pollution, climatechange and sustainability. Moreover, the present invention, as disclosedherein, reduces and/or eliminates evaporative losses, and can reduce thepressure needed for high density storage of H₂, which improves safetyand allows refueling with reduced or eliminated heat generation, whileimproving vessel design flexibility, and vessel shape versatility.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and form apart of the disclosure, illustrate an embodiment of the invention and,together with the description, serve to explain the principles of theinvention.

[0020]FIG. 1 illustrates a longitudinal cross-sectional view of anexample embodiment of the present invention.

[0021]FIG. 2 illustrates example pressure-composition fluid phaseequilibrium isotherm plots for Nitrogen-Hydrogen (N₂—H₂) mixtures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0022] Referring now to the following detailed information, and toincorporated materials; a detailed description of the invention,including specific embodiments, is presented. The detailed descriptionserves to explain the principles of the invention.

[0023] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities ofingredients, constituents, reaction conditions and so forth used in thespecification and claims are to be understood as being modified in allinstances by the term “about”. Accordingly, unless indicated to thecontrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification andattached -claims are approximations that may vary depending upon thedesired properties sought to be obtained by the subject matter presentedherein. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit theapplication of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims,each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of thenumber of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary roundingtechniques. Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameterssetting forth the broad scope of the subject matter presented herein areapproximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examplesare reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value; however,inherently contain certain errors necessarily resulting from thestandard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

[0024] General Description

[0025] The present invention is directed to the storage of hydrogen(H₂), e.g., H₂ molecules within a fluid medium, such as a mixture.Beneficial fluids can include, but are not limited to, nitrogen (N₂),Oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), light inert gases (e.g., Argon), aswell as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), acetylene (C₂H₂), ethane(C₂H₆), ethylene (C₂H₄) ammonia (NH₃), propane (C₃H₈), and water (H₂O),wherein such fluid mixtures are maintained at predetermined conditionsby regulating a temperature range at less than about their respectivecritical temperatures (i.e., often at less than about 647 Kelvin, moreoften between about 50 Kelvin and 126 Kelvin).

[0026] In the present discussion, while such example fluid mediums maybe utilized in the present invention for the storage of hydrogen,nitrogen is generally used as the exemplary medium for illustratingoperation of the present invention. Storing hydrogen in such a fluidmedium and containing such a fluid medium in mobile (e.g., conformable)and/or stationary pressurized vessels as disclosed herein, is abeneficial way to provide an alternative storage system in a resultantmixture for domestic and industrial apparatus, such as, but not limitedto, automotive (e.g., lightweight) and truck vehicles, hydrogenproduction facilities, refueling stations, etc. Additionally, while thebenefits of utilizing fluid media as disclosed herein are readilyapparent for fueling applications, it is not limited only to such. Thepresent invention may also be generally used for any use requiring thestorage of hydrogen, hydrogen molecules, and isotopes of hydrogen forapplications, such as, but not limited to energy storage, chemical, andnuclear arrangements.

[0027] Unlike other H₂ storage approaches, storing hydrogen moleculeswithin a fluid medium, such as, but not limited to liquid nitrogen, (forwhich H₂ absorption increases with temperature, indicating anendothermic process) cools such a storage medium upon mixing. By takingadvantage of such a property, a storage medium, as utilized herein, iscapable of having its volume decreased, e.g., when fueling a vehicle,which results in increasing H₂ capacity (i.e., density) at least greaterthan about 25 kg H₂/m³ (i.e., 12.4 moles/liter), more often betweenabout 25 kg/m³ and about 50 kg H₂/m³ (i.e., 24.8 moles/liter) by, forexample, a means that includes controlling temperature ranges asdiscussed above and/or pressures of often less than about 15,000 poundsper square inch (psi), more often of down to less than about 5000 psi inpredetermined commercial or customized storage containers having fixedstorage volumes.

[0028] Nitrogen, utilized as a beneficial storage medium as disclosedherein, can be arranged to have an overall molecular concentration fromabout 33% H₂ to about 75% H₂, which corresponds to a weight percentageof H₂ from about 3.4 wt % H₂ to about 17.8 wt % H₂. More often thepresent invention, using nitrogen as the storage medium, can be arrangedto have a molecular concentration from about 50% H₂ to about 66% H₂ inan H₂/N₂ mixture that corresponds to a weight percentage of H₂ whichcontains from about 6.7 wt % H₂ to about 12.3 wt % H₂. Such molecularconcentrations using N₂, CO₂, Argon, etc., as the storage medium resultsin a safe and expendable H₂ storage medium having an approximateeffective average weight (e.g., containing between about 13.5 wt % H₂and about 22 wt % H₂ on an average basis between refuelings) of themixture that is substantially lower in application when utilized as avehicle fuel.

[0029] Accordingly, H₂ storage utilizing N₂ as a medium, provides astorage volume comparable to pure hydrogen gas compressed to about 5000psi and about 15,000 psi at room temperature, but capable of beingoperated at lower pressures as discussed above, which contributes to alower mechanical hazard and eases requirements for non-cylindricallyshaped vessels (e.g., conformable vessels). Such a storage method,apparatus, and system as disclosed herein improves safety, refueling,design flexibility, vessel shape versatility, having reduced and/oreliminated evaporative losses at weight, volume, and capital costtargets comparable to known approaches.

[0030] Specific Description

[0031] Turning now to the drawings, FIG. 1 shows a longitudinalcross-sectional view of a beneficial hydrogen storage embodiment of thepresent invention, generally designated as reference numeral 100. Such abeneficial arrangement can include a pressure vessel 2 having anelongated cylindrical configuration as is typical of pressure vesseldesign in the art that is capable of being arranged as a stationary(e.g., a fueling station) and/or a mobile configuration, such as in asystem for distributing the hydrogen storage medium of the presentinvention to such an example fueling station. As another arrangement,the hydrogen storage beneficial embodiment 100 can be arranged as anon-board storage container (e.g., a conformable container) to providefuel for a light vehicle or a heavy-duty truck. By incorporating knownin the art vessel technologies coupled with lightweight materials, suchas, but not limited to, reinforced composite materials, such ascarbon-fiber, aramid, the composite material sold under the trademark“Kevlar,” etc., for constructing the inner pressure wall configurations,such vessels as disclosed herein, are capable of resisting corrosion,fatigue and catastrophic failure, enabling such vessels to be used invehicles having constrained non-cylindrical physical spaces.

[0032] Returning to FIG. 1, pressure vessel 2 includes an outer shell 4and an inner pressure container 6 surrounding and enclosing asubstantially fixed storage volume 10. The term “substantially fixedstorage volume and/or a substantially fixed volume” as used herein,includes a volume capable of remaining constant to within about 5% dueto changes in pressure and temperature. Such a vessel 2 can also includean insulated means, for example, a vacuum multilayer insulation, toprevent heat transfer between inner pressure container 6 and outer shell4. An inlet port 14 and a pair of outlet ports 18, 22 extending throughinner pressure container 6 and outer shell 4, can regulate access intoand out of fixed storage volume 10.

[0033] In the method of the invention, a beneficial medium, such as, butnot limited to LN₂, is directed, for example, by an external pumping orcondensing means (not shown) as known by those skilled in the art,through inlet port 14 to fill up to about 99%, more often up to about95%, of fixed storage volume 10 and a temperature can be maintainedbetween about 50 Kelvin and about 126 Kelvin by a means, such as, forexample, an electrical heating means (not shown), a mechanical and/or athermoelectric cooler (not shown), and any means capable of manipulatingthe spin states of hydrogen molecules to achieve the cooling of themixture as known by those skilled in the art. In one beneficialarrangement, hydrogen gas molecules (H₂) can be pumped into fixedstorage volume 10 by for example, a compressor, raising the pressure toa designed level. Thereafter, by controlling temperature between about50 Kelvin and about 126 Kelvin (when utilizing LN₂ as the beneficialmedium) and by maintaining pressures to less than about 5000 psi, theintroduced hydrogen gas molecules, mixed into a selected medium, such asLN₂, i.e., with a liquid phase absorption energy of order of magnitudeof 1 kJ/mole H₂, can form a mixture having a liquid and vapor phase or asingle fluid phase when at pressures exceeding the saturation pressurefor a predetermined mixture and for a predetermined temperature. Such amixture enables the storage of a high density of hydrogen molecules ofgreater than about 25 kg H₂/m³, more often between about 25 kg H₂/m³ andabout 50 kg H₂/m³. As another beneficial arrangement, the fluid mixturethat includes such a phase(s) as disclosed above can be premixed and/orprecooled and communicated to fixed storage volume 10. Moreover, byregulating temperatures and pressures within the disclosed rangesherein, such a mixture can be arranged to include a liquid mixture 26containing H₂ and/or an overlying vapor phase containing H₂ that iscapable of being extracted through respective outlet ports 22, 18 to beused as a fuel for apparatus, such as, but not limited to, light-weightvehicles and trucks.

[0034]FIG. 2 shows example pressure-composition fluid phase equilibriumisotherm plots for Nitrogen-Hydrogen (N₂-H₂) beneficial mixtures of thepresent invention. Each plot, e.g., 34 (88.2K), 36 (78.2K), 40 68.2K),forms a closed loop isotherm wherein a maximum for each curve is acritical point (a point where the vapor and liquid phases areidentical). In addition, FIG. 2 illustrates pressure dropping withincreased temperature for fixed overall compositions that are capable ofstoring a high density of H₂ molecules in a predetermined phase, such asin a liquid phase (i.e., near denoted points A and B). For example,extrapolated denoted point A on isotherm 40 (68.2K), shows about 53% H₂,at about 30 MPa of pressure. Correspondingly, point B on isotherm 36(78.2K), shows about 45% H₂, at a reduced pressure of about 19 MPa,indicating that a high density of H₂ can exist for fixed compositions insuch liquid phase states at such regulated temperatures and pressures.For a full discussion of such plots, see “Liquid-vapour equilibrium forhydrogen+nitrogen at temperatures from 63 to 110 K and pressures to 57MPa,” by W. Street and J. Calado, J. Chem. Thermodynamics, 1978, pp.1089-1100.

[0035] While particular operational sequences, materials, temperatures,parameters, and particular embodiments have been described and orillustrated, such are not intended to be limiting. Modifications andchanges may become apparent to those skilled in the art, and it isintended that the invention be limited only by the scope of the appendedclaims.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for storing hydrogen, comprising:providing a container comprising a predetermined substantially fixedvolume; providing a fluid mixture to said predetermined substantiallyfixed volume, said fluid mixture comprising hydrogen molecules; andproviding a predetermined temperature and/or a predetermined pressure tosaid container so as to increase the density of said fluid mixture,wherein one or more predetermined phase(s) of said fluid mixture iscapable of being withdrawn from said container and utilized as a fuel.2. The method of claim 1, wherein said fluid mixture further comprises ahigh density of hydrogen molecules between about 25 kg H₂/m³ and about50 kg H₂/m³.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said predeterminedtemperature is less than about 647 Kelvin.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein said predetermined temperature is between about 50 Kelvin andabout 126 Kelvin.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said predeterminedpressure is less than about 15,000 psi.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein said predetermined pressure is capable of being less than about5000 psi.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said hydrogen moleculescomprise hydrogen isotopes.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said oneor more predetermined phase(s) comprise a liquid.
 9. The method of claim1, wherein said one or more predetermined phase(s) comprise a vapor. 10.The method of claim 1, wherein said one or more predetermined phase(s)comprise a gas.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein said fluid mixturecomprises a fluid selected from the group consisting of: nitrogen (N₂),Oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), lightweight inert gases (e.g.,Argon), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), acetylene (C₂H₂), ethane(C₂H₆), ethylene (C₂H₄) ammonia (NH₃), propane (C₃H₈), and water (H₂O).12. The method of claim 1, wherein said fluid mixture comprises aliquefied inert gas.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said fluidmixture comprises liquid nitrogen.
 14. The method of claim 1, whereinsaid fluid mixture comprises liquid oxygen.
 15. The method of claim 1,wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquid carbon dioxide.
 16. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said fluid mixture comprises a molecularconcentration from about 33% H₂ to about 75% H₂.
 17. The method of claim1, wherein a vehicle can be arranged to utilize said fuel.
 18. Themethod of claim 1, wherein a home can be arranged to utilize said fuel.19. The method of claim 1, wherein said container is conformable.
 20. Ahydrogen storage apparatus, comprising: a container having apredetermined substantially fixed volume; a fluid mixture comprisinghydrogen molecules, capable of being disposed within said predeterminedsubstantially fixed volume; and a means configured to increase thedensity of said fluid mixture, wherein one or more predeterminedphase(s) of said fluid mixture is capable of being withdrawn from saidcontainer and utilized as a fuel.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20, whereinsaid fluid mixture further comprises a high density of hydrogenmolecules between about 25 kg H₂/m³ and about 50 kg H₂/m³.
 22. Theapparatus of claim 20, wherein said means can maintain a temperaturerange between about 50 Kelvin and about 126 Kelvin.
 23. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein said means can maintain a temperature range of lessthan about 647 Kelvin.
 24. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said meanscan enable a pressure of less than about 5000 psi.
 25. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein said means can enable a pressure of less than about15,000 psi.
 26. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said hydrogenmolecules comprise hydrogen isotopes.
 27. The apparatus of claim 20,wherein said one or more predetermined phase(s) comprise a liquid. 28.The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said one or more predeterminedphase(s) comprise a vapor.
 29. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein one ormore predetermined phase(s) comprises a gas.
 30. The apparatus of claim20, wherein said fluid mixture comprises a fluid selected from the groupconsisting of: nitrogen (N₂), Oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂),lightweight inert gases (e.g., Argon), carbon monoxide (CO), methane(CH₄), acetylene (C₂H₂), ethane (C₂H₆), ethylene (C₂H₄) ammonia (NH₃),propane (C₃H₈), and water (H₂O).
 31. The apparatus of claim 20, whereinsaid fluid mixture comprises a liquefied inert gas.
 32. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquid nitrogen.
 33. Theapparatus of claim 20, wherein said fluid mixture comprises a molecularconcentration from about 33% H₂ to about 75% H₂.
 34. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein said fluid comprises liquid oxygen.
 35. The apparatusof claim of claim 20, wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquid carbondioxide.
 36. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein a vehicle can bearranged to utilize said fuel.
 37. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein ahome can be arranged to utilize said fuel.
 38. The apparatus of claims20, wherein said container is conformable.
 39. A hydrogen storagesystem, comprising: one or more primary containers each havingpredetermined substantially fixed volumes, further comprising: a fluidmixture comprising hydrogen molecules, capable of being disposed withinsaid predetermined substantially fixed volumes; a means configured toincrease the density of said fluid mixture, wherein one or morepredetermined phase(s) of said fluid mixture is capable of beingdistributed from said one or more primary containers; and one or moresecondary containers, each having predetermined substantially fixedvolumes, wherein said one or more secondary containers are arranged toreceive from said one or more primary containers said one or morepredetermined phase(s) of said fluid mixture for utilization as a fuel.40. The system of claim 39, wherein said fluid mixture further comprisesa high density of hydrogen molecules between about 25 kg H₂/m³ and about50 kg H₂/m³.
 41. The system of claim 39, wherein said means can maintaina temperature range between about 50 Kelvin and about 126 Kelvin. 42.The system of claim 39, wherein said means can maintain a temperaturerange of less than about 647 Kelvin.
 43. The system of claim 39, whereinsaid means can enable a pressure of less than about 5000 psi.
 44. Thesystem of claim 39, wherein said means can enable a pressure of lessthan about 15,000 psi.
 45. The system of claim 39, wherein said hydrogenmolecules comprise hydrogen isotopes.
 46. The system of claim 39,wherein said one or more predetermined phase(s) comprise a liquid. 47.The system of claim 39, wherein said one or more predetermined phase(s)comprise a vapor.
 48. The system of claim 39, wherein said one or morepredetermined phase(s) comprise a gas.
 49. The system of claim 39,wherein said fluid mixture comprises a liquefied inert gas.
 50. Thesystem of claim 39, wherein said fluid mixture comprises a fluidselected from the group consisting of: nitrogen (N₂), Oxygen (O₂),carbon dioxide (CO₂), lightweight inert gases (e.g., Argon), carbonmonoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), acetylene (C₂H₂), ethane (C₂H₆), ethylene(C₂H₄) ammonia (NH₃), propane (C₃H₈), and water (H₂O).
 51. The system ofclaim 39, wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquid nitrogen.
 52. Thesystem off claim 39, wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquid oxygen.53. The system of claim 39, wherein said fluid mixture comprises liquidcarbon dioxide.
 54. The system of claim 39, wherein said fluid mixturecomprises a molecular concentration from about 33% H₂ to about 75% H₂.55. The system of claim 39, wherein said one or more secondarycontainers comprises a vehicle.
 56. The system of claim 39, wherein saidone or more secondary containers comprises a home.
 57. The system ofclaim 39, wherein said one or more secondary containers comprises afueling station.